Rewilding Namibia

Following its independence from South Africa in 1990, Namibia implemented community-based natural resource management. This initiative aimed to rejuvenate wildlife populations and economically uplift historically marginalized rural residents on communal lands.

Previously, thousands of armed South African soldiers defended Apartheid interests against anti-colonial forces. Now, the focus has shifted to rewilding and ecotourism, fostering both ecological recovery and rural economic development.

The core concept is to incentivize local communities for their conservation efforts through benefit-sharing agreements with safari and trophy hunting enterprises.

To achieve this, villages establish communally owned conservancies, managed by democratically elected committees responsible for overseeing conservation initiatives that attract tourism investments. Designated zones are allocated for tourism development and wildlife preservation. These policies have positioned the Zambezi region in northeastern Namibia as a notable location in the global tourism market.

The Challenge of Inclusive Community-Based Tourism

Similar to other remote rural areas globally, tourism holds great promise for fostering inclusive community advancement (Scheyvens & Biddulph, 2017).

The origins of community-based natural resource management can be traced back to Zimbabwe in the 1980s, and this model has since proliferated in several Southern and Eastern African nations (see also Saarinen, 2015). However, the benefits of tourism do not materialize automatically; their success hinges on the industry's structure.

Limited local ownership and insufficient supply chains for goods needed to accommodate international visitors frequently lead to significant leakage—where profits flow to outside operators rather than benefiting local communities (Lacher & Nepal, 2010).

Low-income nations are especially vulnerable to the emergence of tourism enclaves, which are segregated from their surroundings. These enclaves, typically developed and operated by international investors, provide minimal economic advantages to local residents (Saarinen, 2017).

Enclave tourism may manifest in various forms, from all-inclusive resorts in the Maldives (dell’Agnese 2018) to urban "tourist ghettos" (Cohen & Neal, 2012).

Consequently, attracting tourism investors alone is insufficient for generating widespread economic benefits in a region. A more in-depth examination of local-level gains is essential.

To evaluate the effectiveness of tourism as a regional development strategy, it is crucial to ask: how much remains?

Our Research

In our recent investigation of wildlife tourism within Namibia's Zambezi region, we aimed to address this question (Kalvelage, Revilla Diez & Bollig, 2020).

(Available for free download from the publisher through late April 2021:)

Tourism in The Zambezi Region

The Zambezi region is a favored tourist locale, boasting approximately 60,000 bed nights annually, which is significant for rural Africa.

The area's rich water resources support abundant wildlife populations. In conjunction with national parks, community conservancies are dedicated to:

• Preserving and expanding wildlife habitats,
• Protecting wildlife corridors, and
• Promoting sustainable agricultural practices.

There are 47 lodging options for tourists in the Zambezi region, with the more upscale establishments situated within the conservancies due to the appealing landscapes and riverfront views. Most lodges are operated by external investors.

Hunting tourism companies typically function on a fly-in, fly-out model, as local communities often lack the necessary skills and marketing avenues to conduct these activities independently.

Local product supply for tourists is quite limited. Lodge owners noted that food from local markets frequently does not meet the quality standards expected by international clients. Consequently, larger lodges rely on specialized logistics firms to transport food and beverages from Windhoek via truck and boat.

These challenges exemplify the characteristics of enclave tourism found in many regions worldwide.

However, Namibia distinguishes itself as the national government has granted conservancies the authority to negotiate with tourism investors for a share of their profits, potentially benefiting local communities.

Conservancies can leverage their scenic landscapes and wildlife assets to negotiate financial benefit-sharing agreements. Furthermore, they can advocate for agreed-upon employment levels for their community members.

Tourism Benefits in The Zambezi Region

Namibia's policies create income opportunities in a region with minimal formal employment options and high unemployment rates. Our calculations indicate that approximately 20% of tourist expenditures remain within the region.

• Hunting tourism directly benefits conservancies, but the full advantages do not reach households, as significant portions are allocated to operational costs.
• Lodge operators contribute less to conservancies, yet their employment impact offers greater overall benefits to community members.

Notably, these benefits predominantly arise from the conservancies' ability to enforce quota fees and local employment.

There exists considerable untapped potential for value capture through local entrepreneurs engaging as suppliers or tour operators, a potential that remains largely unexplored.

Moreover, there are no direct payments for ecosystem services—payments made by users to sustain an ecosystem—despite the crucial role conservancies play in safeguarding migration routes for large ungulates.

Typically, conservancies allocate about 50% of their income for operational expenses, with the remaining 50% distributed among communities. Increasingly, these funds are utilized for community-wide improvements, such as electrification, water supply, and road infrastructure.

A portion of conservancy income also supports farmers facing losses due to wildlife disturbances, provides grants for school fees, and offers direct cash benefits to community members.

As a result, wildlife, including elephants and cape buffaloes, indirectly finances the education of some community members. This investment in education may yield the highest returns, as educated youth are more likely to become proactive entrepreneurs.

Issues & Challenges

While the notion that wildlife funds education and infrastructure is appealing, this strategy is far from a cure-all for merging nature conservation with regional development.

Firstly, in the Zambezi region, tourism accounted for merely 5.5% of rural households' net income in 2019, according to a recent survey. This indicates that tourism remains marginal compared to other livelihood strategies.

Secondly, increased wildlife populations resulting from conservancy practices can jeopardize the profits of small-scale agriculturalists, as their crops often attract elephants and their livestock are vulnerable to lion and crocodile predation.

Thirdly, although the conservancy model alleviates some issues associated with enclave tourism, local residents often remain passive recipients of grants rather than active participants in income-generating activities, serving primarily as low-wage workers in tourism enterprises.

Fourthly, questions persist about the distribution of benefits at the community level. While the conservancy may secure its share, high operational costs can lead to disproportionate benefits for certain community members.

Thus, it is essential to inquire not only "how much remains?" but also "who benefits?"

Overall, our findings suggest that:

• Attention must be directed towards the institutional frameworks of host countries to evaluate tourism's developmental impact.
• Although the ethical considerations surrounding leisure hunting are contentious, tourism geographers can contribute to the discussion by examining the extent to which hunting tourism either benefits or harms local communities.

In light of ongoing efforts to significantly expand conservation areas, our research underscores that economic development, poverty reduction, and conservation do not inherently support one another. Thoughtful institutional development, coupled with a commitment to environmental justice, is vital for realizing the potential of this promising triad.

About the Authors

• Linus Kalvelage <[email protected]> is a research associate at the Institute of Geography, University of Cologne, focusing on tourism global production networks, nature conservation, and regional development in Southern Africa.
• Javier Revilla Diez <[email protected]> is a full professor of economic geography at the Institute of Geography, University of Cologne, investigating the socio-economic impacts of growth corridors as the principal investigator of the CRC 228.
• Michael Bollig <[email protected]> is a full professor of social and cultural anthropology at the University of Cologne, with research interests in human-environment interactions, political ecology, and environmental history.

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